TRANSDUCERS AND OSCILLOSCOPES

 

TRANSDUCERS

[1]. The input quantity for most instrumentation systems is nonelectrical. In order to use electrical methods and techniques for measurement, the nonelectrical quantity is converted into a proportional electrical signal by a device called transducer.

[2]. Another definition states that transducer is a device which when actuated by energy in one system, supplies energy in the same form or in another form to a second system.

[3].When transducer gives output in electrical form it is known as electrical transducer. Actually, electrical transducer consists of two parts which are very closely related to Each other.

[4]. These two parts are sensing or detecting element and transduction element. The sensing or detecting element is commonly known as sensor.

[5].Definition states that sensor is a device that produces a measurable response to a [6].The transduction element transforms the output of the sensor to an electrical output, as shown in the Fig.

5.1 Classification of Electrical Transducers

Transducers may be classified according to their structure, method of energy conversion and application. Thus we can say that transducers are classified

[1]. As active and passive transducer

[2]. According to transduction principle

[3]. As analog and digital transducer

[4]. As primary and secondary transducer

[5]. As transducer and inverse transducer

Active and Passive Transducer

Active Transducers

1].Active transducers are self-generating type of transducers.

[2].These transducers develop an electrical parameter (i.e. voltage or current) which is proportional to the quantity under measurement.

[3].These transducers do not require any external source or power for their operation.

[4].They can be subdivided into the following commonly used types

Passive Transducers

[1].Passive transducers do not generate any electrical signal by themselves. Ø To obtain an electrical signal from such transducers, an external source of power is essential.

[2].Passive transducers depend upon the change in an electrical parameter (R, L, or C).

[3].They are also known as externally power driven transducers.

[4].They can be subdivided into the following commonly used types.

According to Transduction Principle

The transducers can be classified according to principle used in transduction.

[1]. Capacitive transduction

[2]. Electromagnetic transduction

[3]. Inductive transduction

[4]. Piezoelectric transduction

[5]. Photovoltaic transduction

[6]. Photoconductive transduction

Analog and Digital Transducers

The transducers can be classified on the basis of the output which may be a continuous function of time or the output may be in discrete steps.

Analog Transducers

Ø These transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a continuous function of time.

[1].A strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouples or thermistors are called analog transducers as they produce an output which is a continuous function of time.

Digital Transducers

ital Transducers Ø Digital transducers produce an electrical output in the form of pulses which forms an unique code.

[1]. Unique code is generated for each discrete value sensed.

Primary or Secondary

1].Some transducers consist of mechanical device along with the electrical device. In such transducers mechanical device acts as a primary transducer and converts physical quantity into mechanical signal.

[2].The electrical device then converts mechanical signal produced by primary transducer into an electrical signal.

[3].Therefore, electrical device acts as a secondary transducer.

[4].For an example, in pressure measurement Bourdons tube acts as a primary transducer which converts a pressure into displacement and LVDT acts as a secondary transducer which converts this displacement into an equivalent electrical signal.

Transducer and Inverse Transducer

[1].Transducers convert non-electrical quantity into electrical quantity whereas inverse transducer converts electrical quantity into non-electrical quantity.

[2].For example, microphone is a transducer which converts sound signal into an Electrical signal whereas loudspeaker is an inverse transducer which converts electrical signal into sound signal.

Advantages of Electrical Transducers

 [1].Electrical signal obtained from electrical transducer can be easily processed (mainly amplified) and brought to a level suitable for output device which may be an indicator or recorder.

[2].The electrical systems can be controlled with a very small level of power

[3].The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted, and processed for the purpose of measurement.

[4].With the advent of IC technology, the electronic systems have become extremely small in size, requiring small space for their operation.

[5].No moving mechanical parts are involved in the electrical systems. Therefore there is no question of mechanical wear and tear and no possibility of mechanical failure.

Electrical transducer is almost a must in this modem world. Apart from the merits described above, some disadvantages do exist in electrical sensors.

Disadvantages of Electrical Transducers

[1]. The electrical transducer is sometimes less reliable than mechanical type because of the ageing and drift of the active components. Ø Also, the sensing elements and the associated signal processing circuitry are comparatively expensive. With the use of better materials, improved technology and circuitry, the range of accuracy and stability have been increased for electrical transducers.

[2].Using negative feedback technique, the accuracy of measurement and the stability of the system are improved, but all at the expense of increased circuit complexity, more space, and obviously, more cost.

[3]. Accuracy: It is defined as the closeness with which the reading approaches an accepted standard value or ideal value or true value, of the variable being measured.

[4]. Ruggedness: The transducer should be mechanically rugged to withstand overloads. It should have overload protection.

[5]. Linearity: The output of the transducer should be linearly proportional to the input quantity under measurement. It should have linear input - output characteristic. –

[6]. Repeatability: The output of the transducer must be exactly the same, under same environmental conditions, when the same quantity is applied at the input repeatedly.

[7]. High output: The transducer should give reasonably high output signal so that it can be easily processed and measured. The output must be much larger than noise. Now-a-days, digital output is preferred in many applications;

[8]. High Stability and Reliability: The output of the transducer should be highly stable and reliable so that there will be minimum error in measurement. The output must remain unaffected by environmental conditions such as change in temperature, pressure, etc.

[9]. Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the electrical transducer is defined as the electrical output obtained per unit change in the physical parameter of the input quantity. For example, for a transducer used for temperature measurement, sensitivity will be expressed in mV/’ C. A high sensitivity is always desirable for a given transducer.

[10]. Dynamic Range: For a transducer, the operating range should be wide, so that it can be used over a wide range of measurement conditions. 9. Size: The transducer should have smallest possible size and shape with minimal weight and volume. This will make the measurement system very compact.

[11]. Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which the transducer responds to changes in the measured quantity. The speed of response of the transducer should be as high as practicable.

 

5.2 Transducer Selection Factors

[1].Nature of measurement

[2].Loading effect

[3].Environmental considerations

[4].Measuring system

[5].Cost & Availability

 

5.3 Resistance Transducers

Temperature Sensors

Temperature is one of the fundamental parameters indicating the physical condition of matter, i.e. expressing its degree of hotness or coldness. Whenever a body is heat’ various effects are observed. They include

[1].Change in the physical or chemical state, (freezing, melting, boiling etc.)

[2]. Change in physical dimensions,

[3]. Changes in electrical properties, mainly the change in resistance,

[4]. Generation of an emf at the junction of two dissimilar metals.

One of these effects can be employed for temperature measurement purposes. Electrical methods are the most convenient and accurate methods of temperature measurement. These methods are based on change in resistance with temperature and generation of thermal e.m.f. The change in resistance with temperature may be positive or negative. According to that there are two types

[1].Resistance Thermometers —Positive temperature coefficient

[2]. Thermistors —Negative temperature coefficient

 

Construction of Resistance Thermometers

[1].The wire resistance thermometer usually consists of a coil wound on a mica or ceramic former, as shown in the Fig.

[2].The coil is wound in bifilar form so as to make it no inductive. Such coils are available in different sizes and with different resistance values ranging from 10 ohms to 25,000 ohms.

Advantages of Resistance Thermometers

[1].The measurement is accurate.

[2].Indicators, recorders can be directly operated.

[3].The temperature sensor can be easily installed and replaced.

[4].Measurement of differential temperature is possible.

[5].Resistance thermometers can work over a wide range of temperature from -20’ C to + 650° C.

[6].They are suitable for remote indication.

[7].They are smaller in size

[8].They have stability over long periods of time.

 

Limitations of Resistance Thermometers

[1]. A bridge circuit with external power source is necessary for their operation.

[2]. They are comparatively costly.

 

Thermistors

[1].Thermistor is a contraction of a term ‘ thermal-resistors’ .

[2]. Thermistors are semiconductor device which behave as thermal resistors having negative temperature coefficient [ i.e. their resistance decreases as temperature increases.

[3].The below Fig. shows this characteristic.

Construction of Thermistor

[1]. Thermistors are composed of a sintered mixture of metallic oxides, manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, and uranium. Ø Their resistances at temperature may range from 100 to 100k .

[2].Thermistors are available in variety of shapes and sizes as shown in the Fig.

[3].Smallest in size are the beads with a diameter of 0.15 mm to 1.25 mm.

[4].Beads may be sealed in the tips of solid glass rods to form probes.

[5]. Disks and washers are made by pressing thermistor material under high pressure into flat cylindrical shapes.

[6].Washers can be placed in series or in parallel to increase power dissipation rating.

[7].Thermistors are well suited for precision temperature measurement, temperature control, and temperature compensation, because of their very large change in resistance with temperature. Ø They are widely used for measurements in the temperature range -100 C to +100 C

[8].Comparatively large change in resistance for a given change in temperature

[9].Fast response over a narrow temperature range.

 

Limitations of Thermistor

[1].The resistance versus temperature characteristic is highly non-linear.

[2].Not suitable over a wide temperature range.

[3].Because of high resistance of thermistor, shielded cables have to be used to minimize interference

 

Applications of Thermistor

[1]. The thermistors relatively large resistance change per degree change in temperature [known as sensitivity] makes it useful as temperature transducer.

[2].The high sensitivity, together with the relatively high thermistor resistance that May be selected [e.g. 100k.], makes the thermistor ideal for remote measurement or control. Thermistor control systems are inherently sensitive, stable, and fast acting, and they require relatively simple circuitry.

[3].Because thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance, thermistors are widely used to compensate for the effects of temperature on circuit performance.

[4].Measurement of conductivity.

 

Temperature Transducers

They are also called thermo-electric transducers. Two commonly used temperature transducers are

[1]. Resistance Temperature Detectors

[2].Thermocouples.

 

Thermocouples

[3].The thermocouple is one of the simplest and most commonly used methods of measuring process temperatures.

 

5.4 Capacitive Transducers

Capacitive transducers are capacitors that change their capacity under the influence of the input magnitude, which can be linear or angular movement. The capacity of a flat capacitor, composed of two electrodes with sizes a´b, with area of overlapping s, located at a distance δ from each other (in d << а/10 and d << b/10) is defined by the formula

                                                                 C=ε₀ ε _s/d

where: ε₀=8,854.10 ^-12    F/m is the dielectric permittivity of vacuum;

[4]. - permittivity of the area between the electrodes (for air e= 1,0005);

S=a.b – overlapping cross-sectional area of the electrodes. The Capacity can be influenced by changing the air gap d, the active area of overlapping of the electrodes s and the dielectric properties of the environment

Application of capacitive transducers

Capacitive sensors have found wide application in automated systems that require precise determination of the placement of theobjects, processes in microelectronics, assembly of precise equipment associated with spindles for high speed drilling machines, ultrasonic welding machines and in equipment for Vibration measurement. They can be used not only to measure displacements (large and small), but also the level of fluids, fuel bulk materials, humidity environment, concentration of substances and others Capacitive sensors are often used for non-contact measurement of the thickness of various materials, such as silicon wafers, brake discs and plates of hard discs. Among the possibilities of the capacitive sensors is the measurement of density, thickness and location of Dielectrics.

 

5.5 Inductive Transducers

An LVDT, or Linear Variable Differential Transformer, is a transducer that converts a linear displacement or position from a mechanical reference (or zero) into a proportional electrical signal containing phase (for direction) and amplitude information (for distance). The LVDT operation does not require electrical contact between the moving part (probe or core rod assembly) and the transformer, but rather relies on electromagnetic coupling; this and the fact that they operate without any built-in electronic circuitry are the primary reasons why LVDTs have been widely used in applications where long life and high reliability under severe environments are a required, such Military/Aerospace applications.

The LVDT consists of a primary coil (of magnet wire) wound over the whole length of a non-ferromagnetic bore liner (or spool tube) or a cylindrical coil form. Two secondary coils are wound on top of the primary coil for “long stroke” LVDTs (i.e. for actuator main RAM) or each side of the primary coil for “Short stroke” LVDTs (i.e. for electro-hydraulic servo-valve or EHSV). The two secondary windings are typically connected in “opposite series” (or wound in opposite rotational directions). A ferromagnetic core, which length is a fraction of the bore liner length, magnetically couples the primary to the secondary winding turns that are located above the length of the core.

When the primary coil is excited with a sine wave voltage (Vin), it generate a variable magnetic field which, concentrated by the core, induces the secondary voltages (also sine waves). While the secondary windings are designed so that the differential output voltage (Va-Vb) is proportional to the core position from null, the phase angle (close to 0 degree or close to 180 degrees depending of direction) determines the direction away from the mechanical zero. The zero is defined as the core position where the phase angle of the (Va-Vb) differential output is 90 degrees.

The differential output between the two secondary outputs (Va-Vb) when the core is at the mechanical zero (or “Null Position”) is called the Null Voltage; as the phase angle at null position is 90 degrees, the Null Voltage is a “quadrature” voltage. This residual voltage is due to the complex nature of the LVDT electrical model, which includes the parasitic capacitances of the windings.

 

5.6 Digital Transducers

A transducer measures physical quantities and transmits the information as coded digital signals rather than as continuously varying currents or voltages. Any transducer that presents information as discrete samples and that does not introduce a quantization error when the reading is represented in the digital form may be classified as a digital transducer. Most transducers used in digital systems are primarily analogue in nature and incorporate some form of conversion to provide the digital output. Many special techniques have been developed to avoid the necessity to use a conventional analogue - to-digital conversion technique to produce the digital signal. This article describes some of the direct methods which are in current use of producing digital outputs from transducers.

Some of the techniques used in transducers which are particularly adaptable for use in digital systems are introduced. The uses of encoder discs for absolute and incremental position measurement and to provide measurement of angul ar speed are outlined. The application of linear gratings for measurement of translational displacement is compared with the use of Moire fringe techniques used for similar purposes. Synchro devices are briefly explained and the various techniques used to produce a digital output from synchro resolvers are described. Brief descriptions of devices which develop a digital output from the natural frequency of vibration of some part of the transducer are presented. Digital techniques including vortex flow meters and instruments using laser beams are also briefly dealt with. Some of them are as follows:

[1].Shaft Encoders

[2].Digital Resolvers

[3].Digital Tachometers

[4].Hall Effect Sensors

[5].Limit Switches

 

Shaft Encoders:

An encoder is a device that provides a coded reading of a measurement. A Shaft encoders can be one of the encoder that provide digital output measurements of angular position and velocity. This shaft encoders are excessively applicable in robotics, machine tools, mirror positioning systems, rotating machinery controls (fluid and electric), etc. Shaft encoders are basically of two types-Absolute and Incremental encoders.

An "absolute" encoder maintains position information when power is removed from the system. The position of the encoder is available immediately on applying power. The relationship between the encoder value and the physical position of the controlled machinery is set at assembly; the system does not need to return to a calibration point to maintain position accuracy. An "incremental" encoder accurately records changes in position, but does not power up with a fixed relation between encoder state and physical position. Devices controlled by incremental encoders may have to "go home" to a fixed reference point to initialize the position measurement. A multi-turn absolute rotary encoder includes additional code wheels and gears. A high-resolution wheel measures the fractional rotation, and lower-resolution geared code wheels record the number of whole revolutions of the shaft.

n absolute encoder has multiple code rings with various binary weightings which provide a data word representing the absolute position of the encoder within one

An incremental encoder works differently by providing an A and a B pulse output that provide no usable count information in their own right. Rather, the counting is done in the external electronics. The point where the counting begins depends on the counter in the external electronics and not on the position of the encoder. To provide useful position information, the encoder position must be referenced to the device to which it is attached, generally using an index pulse. The distinguishing feature of the incremental encoder is that it reports an incremental change in position of the encoder to the counting electronics.

5.7 Piezoelectric Transducers

Piezoelectric transducers produce an output voltage when a force is applied to them. They are frequently used as ultrasonic receivers and also as displacement transducers, particularly as part of devices measuring acceleration, force and pressure. In ultra- sonic receivers, the sinusoidal amplitude variations in the ultrasound wave received are translated into sinusoidal changes in the amplitude of the force applied to the piezoelectric transducer. In a similar way, the translational movement in a displacement transducer is caused by mechanical means to apply a force to the piezoelectric transducer. Piezoelectric transducers are made from piezoelectric materials. These have an asymmetrical lattice of molecules that distorts when a mechanical force is applied to it. This distortion causes a reorientation of electric charges within the material, resulting in a relative displacement of positive and negative charges. The charge displacement induces surface charges on the material of opposite polarity between the two sides. By implanting electrodes into the surface of the material, these surface charges can be measured as an output voltage. For a rectangular block of material, the induced voltage is given by:

Where F is the applied force in g, A is the area of the material in mm, d is the thickness of the material and k is the piezoelectric constant. The polarity of the induced voltage depends on whether the material is compressed or stretched.

Where F is the applied force in g, A is the area of the material in mm, d is the thickness of the material and k is the piezoelectric constant. The polarity of the induced voltage depends on whether the material is compressed or stretched.

Materials exhibiting piezoelectric behaviour include natural ones such as quartz, synthetic ones such as lithiumsulphate andferroelectric ceramics such as barium titanate. The piezoelectric constant varies widely between different materials. Typical values of k are 2.3 for quartz and 140 for barium titanate. Applying equation (13.1) for a force of 1 g applied to a crystal of area 100 mm² and thickness 1 mm gives an output of 23 µV for quartz and 1.4 mV for barium titanate.

The piezoelectric principle is invertible, and therefore distortion in a piezoelectric material can be caused by applying a voltage to it. This is commonly used in ultrasonic transmitters, where the application of a sinusoidal voltage at a frequency in the ultra- sound range causes a sinusoidal variation in the thickness of the material and results in a sound wave being emitted at the chosen frequency. This is considered further in the section below on ultrasonic

 

5.8 Hall-effect transducers

Basically, a Hall-effect sensor is a device that is used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. It consists of a conductor carrying a current that is aligned orthogonally with the magnetic field, as shown in Figure 13.4. This produces a transverse voltage difference across the device that is directly proportional to the magnetic field strength. For an excitation current I and magnetic field strength B, the output voltage is given by V D KIB, where K is known as the Hall constant

The conductor in Hall-effect sensors is usually made from a semiconductor material as opposed to a metal, because a larger voltage output is produced for a magnetic field of a given size. In one common use of the device as a proximity sensor, the magnetic field is provided by a permanent magnet that is built into the device. The magnitude of this field changes when the device becomes close to any ferrous metal object or boundary. The Hall Effect is also commonly used in keyboard pushbuttons, in which a magnet is attached underneath the button. When the button is depressed, the magnet moves past a Hall-effect sensor. The induced voltage is then converted by a trigger circuit into a digital output. Such pushbutton switches can operate at high frequencies without contact bounce.

 

CRT Display

The device which allows, the amplitude of such signals, to be displayed primarily as a function of time, is called cathode ray oscilloscope. The cathode ray tube (CRT) is the heart of the C.R.O. The CRT generates the electron beam, accelerates the beam, deflects the beam and also has a screen where beam becomes visible as a spot. The main parts of the CRT are

[1]. Electron gun

[2]. Deflection system

[3]. Fluorescent screen

Glass tube or envelope Base

Electron gun

[1].The electron gun section of the cathode ray tube provides a sharply focused, electron beam directed towards the fluorescent-coated screen.

[2].This section starts from thermally heated cathode, emitting the electrons.

[3].The control grid is given negative potential with respect to cathode.

[4].This grid controls the number of electrons in t beam, going to the screen.

[5]. The momentum of the electrons (their number x their speed) determines the intensity, or brightness, of the light emitted from the fluorescent screen due to the electron bombardment.

[6].The light emitted is usually of the green colour.

 

Deflection System

[1].When the electron beam is accelerated it passes through the deflection system, with which beam can be positioned anywhere on the screen.

 

Fluorescent Screen

[1].The light produced by the screen does not disappear immediately when bombardment by electrons ceases, i.e., when the signal becomes zero.

[2].The time period for which the trace remains on the screen after the signal becomes zero is known as “persistence or fluorescence” .

[3].The persistence may be as short as a few microsecond, or as long as tens of seconds or even minutes.

[4].Medium persistence traces are mostly used for general purpose applications. Ø Long persistence traces are used in the study of transients.

[5].Long persistence helps in the study of transients since the trace is still seen on the screen after the transient has disappeared.

 

Glass Tube

[1].All the components of a CRT are enclosed in an evacuated glass tube called envelope.

[2]. This allows the emitted electrons to move about freely from one end of the tube to the other end.

 

Base

[1].The base is provided to the CRT through which the connections are made to the various parts.

 

Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Block Diagram

The block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope is shown in the Fig.

The input signal is applied to the amplifier and attenuator section. The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator circuitry as used in the conventional oscilloscopes.

[1].The attenuated signal is then applied to the vertical amplifier.

[2].To digitize the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used.

[3]. The output of the vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter section.

[4]. The successive approximation type of A/D converter is most oftenly used in the digital storage oscilloscopes.

[5].The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration & the waveform to be recorded. Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitizes it. The signal is then captured in the memory.

[6].Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are possible as memory can be readout without being erased. The digital storage oscilloscope has three modes:

[7]. Roll mode

[8]. Store mode

[9]. Hold or save mode.

 

Advantages

[1]. It is easier to operate and has more capability. ii) The storage time is infinite.

[2]. The display flexibility is available. The number of traces that can be stored and recalled depends on the size of the memory.

[3].The cursor measurement is possible. v) The characters can be displayed on screen along with the waveform which can indicate waveform information such as minimum, maximum, frequency, amplitude etc. vi) The X-Y plots, B-H curve, P-V diagrams can be displayed.

[4]. The pretrigger viewing feature allows to display the waveform before trigger pulse.

[5]. Keeping the records is possible by transmitting the data to computer system where the further processing is possible Signal processing is possible which includes translating the raw data into finished information e.g. computing parameters of a captured signal like r.m.s. value, energy stored etc.