Pressure measurement is a very common
requirement for most industrial process control systems and many different
types of pressure-sensing and pressure-measurement systems are available.
However, before considering these in detail, it is important to explain some terms
used in pressure measurement and to define the difference between absolute
pressure, gauge pressure and differential pressure.
Absolute pressure: This is the difference between the pressure of the fluid and the
absolute zero of pressure.
Gauge pressure: This describes the difference between the pressure of a fluid and
atmospheric pressure. Absolute and gauge pressure are therefore related by the
expression:
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Thus, gauge pressure varies as the
atmospheric pressure changes and is therefore not a fixed quantity.
Differential pressure: This term is used to describe the difference between two abso[1]lute pressure
values, such as the pressures at two different points within the same fluid
(often between the two sides of a flow restrictor in a system measuring volume
flow rate).
In most applications, the typical
values of pressure measured range from 1.013 bar (the mean atmospheric
pressure) up to 7000 bar. This is considered to be the ‘normal’ pressure range,
and a large number of pressure sensors are available that can measure pressures
in this range. Measurement requirements outside this range are much less
common. Whilst some of the pressure sensors developed for the ‘normal’ range
can also measure pressures that are either lower or higher than this, it is
preferable to use special instruments that have been specially designed to
satisfy such low- and high-pressure measurement requirements.
The discussion below summarizes the
main types of pressure sensor that are in use. This discussion is primarily
concerned only with the measurement of static pressure, because the measurement
of dynamic pressure is a very specialized area that is not of general interest.
In general, dynamic pressure measurement requires special instruments, although
modified versions of diaphragm-type sensors can also be used if they contain a
suitable displacement sensor (usually either a piezoelectric crystal or a
capacitive element).
15.1 Diaphragms
The diaphragm, shown schematically in
Figure 15.1, is one of three types of elastic[1]element
pressure transducer. Applied pressure causes displacement of the diaphragm and
this movement is measured by a displacement transducer. Different versions of
diaphragm sensors can measure both absolute pressure (up to 50 bar) and gauge
pressure (up to 2000 bar) according to whether the space on one side of the
diaphragm is respectively evacuated or is open to the atmosphere. A diaphragm
can also be used to measure differential pressure (up to 2.5 bar) by applying
the two pressures to the two sides of the diaphragm. The diaphragm can be
either plastic, metal alloy, stainless steel or ceramic. Plastic diaphragms are
cheapest, but metal diaphragms give better accuracy. Stainless steel is
normally used in high temperature or corrosive environments. Ceramic diaphragms
are resistant even to strong acids and alkalis, and are used when the operating
environment is particularly harsh.
The typical magnitude of diaphragm
displacement is 0.1 mm, which is well suited to a strain-gauge type of
displacement-measuring transducer, although other forms of displacement
measurement are also used in some kinds of diaphragm-based sensors. If the
displacement is measured with strain gauges, it is normal to use four strain
gauges arranged in a bridge circuit configuration. The output voltage from the
bridge is a function of the resistance change due to the strain in the
diaphragm. This arrangement automatically provides compensation for
environmental temperature changes. Older pressure transducers of this type used
metallic strain gauges bonded to a diaphragm typically made of stainless steel.
However, apart from manufacturing difficulties arising from the problem of
bonding the gauges, metallic strain gauges have a low gauge factor, which means
that the low output from the strain gauge bridge has to be amplified by an
expensive d.c. amplifier. The development of semiconductor (piezoresistive)
strain gauges provided a solution to the low-output problem, as they have gauge
factors up
to one hundred times greater than
metallic gauges. However, the difficulty of bonding gauges to the diaphragm
remained and a new problem emerged regarding the highly non-linear
characteristic of the strain–output relationship.
The problem of strain-gauge bonding
was solved with the emergence of monolithic piezoresistive pressure
transducers. These have a typical measurement uncertainty of ±0.5% and are now
the most commonly used type of diaphragm pressure transducer. The monolithic
cell consists of a diaphragm made of a silicon sheet into which resistors are
diffused during the manufacturing process. Such pressure transducers can be
made to be very small and are often known as micro-sensors. Also, besides
avoiding the difficulty with bonding, such monolithic silicon measuring cells
have the advantage of being very cheap to manufacture in large quantities.
Although the inconvenience of a non-linear characteristic remains, this is
normally overcome by processing the output signal with an active linearization
circuit or incorporating the cell into a microprocessor[1]based
intelligent measuring transducer. The latter usually provides
analogue-to-digital conversion and interrupt facilities within a single chip
and gives a digital output that is readily integrated into computer control
schemes. Such instruments can also offer automatic temperature compensation,
built-in diagnostics and simple calibration procedures. These features allow
measurement inaccuracy to be reduced to a figure as low as ±0.1% of full-scale
reading.
15.2 Capacitive pressure sensor
A capacitive pressure sensor is
simply a diaphragm-type device in which the diaphragm displacement is
determined by measuring the capacitance change between the diaphragm and a
metal plate that is close to it. Such devices are in common use. It is also
possible to fabricate capacitive elements in a silicon chip and thus form very
small micro-sensors. These have a typical measurement uncertainty of ±0.2%.
15.3 Fibre-optic pressure sensors
Fibre-optic sensors provide an
alternative method of measuring displacements in diaphragm and Bourdon tube
pressure sensors by optoelectronic means, and enable the resulting sensors to
have lower mass and size compared with sensors in which the displacement is
measured by other methods. The shutter sensor described earlier in Chapter 13
is one form of fibre-optic displacement sensor. Another form is the Fotonic
sensor shown in Figure 15.2 in which light travels from a light source, down an
optical fibre, is reflected back from a diaphragm, and then travels back along
a second fibre to a photodetector. There is a characteristic relationship
between the light reflected and the distance from the fibre ends to the
diaphragm, thus making the amount of reflected light dependent upon the
diaphragm displacement and hence the measured pressure.
Apart from the mass and size
advantages of fibre-optic displacement sensors, the output signal is immune to
electromagnetic noise. However, the measurement accuracy is usually inferior to
that provided by alternative displacement sensors, and choice of such sensors
also incurs a cost penalty. Thus, sensors using fibre optics to measure
diaphragm or Bourdon tube displacement tend to be limited to applications where
their small size, low mass and
immunity to electromagnetic noise are particularly advantageous
Apart from the limited use above
within diaphragm and Bourdon tube sensors, fibre-optic cables are also used in
several other ways to measure pressure. A form of fibre-optic pressure sensor
known as a microbend sensor is sketched in Figure 13.7(a). In this, the
refractive index of the fibre (and hence of the intensity of light transmitted)
varies according to the mechanical deformation of the fibre caused by pressure.
The sensitivity of pressure measurement can be optimized by applying the
pressure via a roller chain such that the bending is applied periodically (see
Figure 13.7(b)). The optimal pitch for the chain varies according to the
radius, refractive index and type of cable involved. Microbend sensors are
typically used to measure the small pressure changes generated in vortex
shedding flowmeters. When fibre-optic sensors are used in this flow-measurement
role, the alternative arrangement shown in Figure 15.3 can be used, where a
fibre-optic cable is merely stretched across the pipe. This often simplifies
the detection of vortices.
Phase-modulating fibre-optic pressure
sensors also exist. The mode of operation of these was discussed in Chapter 13.
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